Weapons of the Middle Ages The early Middle Ages in Europe were characterized by massive, sturdy fortifications, and by the 1300s defense was of greater concern than offense. The weapons of the time were slow to change. Their advancement was hindered by both their principal users, the European nobility, and the powerful Roman Catholic church. The nobles jealously guarded the technology behind their weaponry, and the Church opposed the technology on humanitarian grounds. For instance, in 1139 Pope Innocent II forbade the use of the crossbow as too lethal and too anonymous. In addition, contemporary scientists and inventors such as Roger Bacon in the 13th century and Leonardo da Vinci in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, troubled by the destructive nature of war, chose to keep many of their discoveries secret.
Nevertheless, weaponry did advance, principally because of the development of gunpowder in the late Middle Ages. Gunpowder provided the basis for an entirely new series of weapons that would transform the conduct of warfare. Discovered several centuries earlier by the Chinese, it appeared in Europe early in the 14th century and was in common use by the 15th century.
The first artillery pieces, bombards, were little more than iron barrels with long metal bars bound together by hoops. Explosive charges ignited inside these early cannons spewed rocks and other debris in the direction of the enemy, frequently damaging the firing apparatus itself in the process. As metallurgy improved, bombards were replaced by cannons cast from bronze and iron and equipped with better fuses, more stable gunpowder, and cast ammunition, or cannonballs. Although unreliable, costly, and extremely ponderous, these early artillery pieces ended the near invulnerability of medieval stone fortifications. At the same time, ship-mounted cannons provided Europeans with the means to protect their expanding sea trade.
Just as cannons ended the age of the medieval castle and the oared warship, so the handgun ended the age of the medieval knight. Primitive handguns, which consisted essentially of iron tubes, were first used in 1391. The more efficient harquebus, or matchlock, was developed in the 15th century and rapidly spread throughout Europe. This short-range firearm was extremely difficult to operate, and it was soon supplemented by the musket, a simpler firing piece with a longer barrel and greater ball velocity and range. Such weapons proved decisive in the European conquest of America. However, in Europe itself, the slow-firing harquebusiers and musketeers were still vulnerable to faster-moving cavalry, and a skilled archer could usually better any gunner in accuracy and rate of fire. Thus gunners were often protected by pikemen armed with long spears, or pikes, backed in turn by foot soldiers wielding swords.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, weapons played a crucial role in the rise of the European nation-state, and the demand for cannons and handguns grew accordingly. Large manufacturing establishments replaced the individual artisan. Weapon sizes and components were standardized, reducing the time required for production, maintenance, and training. A steady stream of minor firearm improvements was made by specialized cannon foundries and small-arms manufacturers. These advances steadily increased the availability of firearms, lowered their weight, and improved their rate of fire, range, and accuracy.
On the battlefield, the more efficient firearms replaced most of the earlier
weapons (the bayonet was one exception). Well-drilled infantry formations
ruled 17th- and 18th-century battlefields in closely packed formations that
produced a devastating amount of controlled firepower. It was not until the
19th century, when such generals as Napoleon Bonaparte came to favor lighter
and faster-firing guns, that the age of the musket- and rifle-armed
infantryman drew to a close.